1. The French of Revolution of 1830
   1. In 1824, Charles X (r. 1824-1830) succeeded his brother, Louis XVIII. A dedicated reactionary, Charles X vigorously opposed republicanism, liberalism, and constitutionalism.
   2. Charles X’s reactionary policies infuriated both his liberal and working-class opponents.
   3. Discontent with Charles X’s arbitrary policies ignited three days of rioting in July 1830. Eugene Delacroix captured the spirit of the uprising in his famous painting, Liberty Leading the People.
   4. Delacroix’s tribute to liberty portrayed a unified people dedicated to overthrowing tyranny. The unity proved to be brief. While the workers wanted a republic, the bourgeoisie wanted a constitutional monarchy.
   5. The bourgeoisie prevailed. With their support, Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, became “king of the French.” Louis Philippe prided himself on being a “citizen king” who supported France’s business interests.

2. Revolution in Belgium

1. The July Revolution in France helped spark discontent in Belgium.
2. The Congress of Vienna united the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) with Holland to form a single kingdom of the Netherlands.
3. Catholic Belgium and Protestant Holland had very little in common. In 1830, riots in Belgium quickly turned into a widespread demand for independence.
4. Both Great Britain and France opposed intervention. In 1830, the great powers recognized Belgium as a neutral state.

3. Liberal Reform in England: Reform Bill of 1832

1. The House of Commons was less representative of the British people than at any time in its 500-year history.
2. Many boroughs (electoral districts) were sparsely populated, and a few had no people at all. Meanwhile, new industrial cities such as Manchester had no representatives.
3. After a decade of pressure from factory owners and merchants, Parliament passed the Reform Bill of 1832. It created a number of new districts representing heavily urban areas. It also doubled the number of voters to include most middle-class men.
4. It is important to note that under the Reform Bill of 1832 only about one in five adult males could vote. Workers, women, and the poor were all disenfranchised.

4. The Repeal of the Corn Laws

1. The Corn Laws placed a high tariff on imported corn, wheat, and other grains. The tariff benefited large landowners by providing them with a protected market for their crops.
2. Prominent industrialists formed the Anti-Corn Law League. They advocated a free-trade policy that would lower the price of food and increase the profits of industry.
3. Wealthy landowners stubbornly resisted all reform proposals. However, the Irish potato famine dramatically strengthened support for cheaper imported grains.

Parliament finally voted to repeal the Corn Law in 1846. This marked a victory for Britain’s urban population and for the proponents of free trade.